From the Summer Palace, our guide brought us to another historic site - the Old Summer Palace, known in Chinese as Yuanmingyuan. Less visited by tourists, the site today consists largely of ruins from what were once magnificent imperial structures.
What many visitors may not realize is that Yuanmingyuan was once the grandest imperial garden in China and among the most magnificent palace complexes in the world. It served as the primary residence and administrative retreat of the Qing emperors, who often preferred it to the Forbidden City for its beauty, privacy, and comfort. Construction began in 1707 during the reign of Kangxi Emperor and was greatly expanded by later rulers, especially Qianlong Emperor.
Unlike the nearby Summer Palace, which survives today in restored form, the Old Summer Palace remains largely in ruins. At its peak, Yuanmingyuan covered more than 3.5 square kilometers - larger than the Forbidden City—and contained hundreds of pavilions, temples, bridges, lakes, gardens, and ceremonial halls. It was not a single garden but a vast complex of three interconnected ones: Yuanmingyuan, Changchunyuan, and Qichunyuan.
The palace represented the pinnacle of classical Chinese garden design. Its creators sought to recreate idealized landscapes from across China, blending artificial hills, winding waterways, islands, and carefully placed architecture to create ever-changing scenic views. The design embodied the traditional Chinese philosophy of shan-shui (“mountain and water”), which emphasizes harmony between nature and human craftsmanship. Rather than dominating nature, the goal was to shape it into an ideal artistic landscape.
One of Yuanmingyuan’s most fascinating sections was the Western Mansions (Xiyanglou), designed by Jesuit missionaries serving at the Qing court. These structures combined European Baroque architecture with Chinese imperial aesthetics and featured fountains, marble facades, and advanced hydraulic engineering. This rare East-West fusion made the palace even more extraordinary. The surviving stone ruins—particularly the broken marble structures visible today—are among the site’s most recognizable remains.
Yuanmingyuan suffered catastrophic destruction in 1860 during the Second Opium War. After British and French forces entered Beijing, they looted the palace and burned much of the complex over several days in retaliation for the imprisonment and deaths of diplomats and soldiers. Priceless artworks, books, bronzes, jade, porcelain, and imperial treasures were stolen or destroyed. Many of these objects remain in Western museums and private collections, including the British Museum and institutions in France. Although a small number of treasures—such as several bronze zodiac fountain heads—have been returned to China through donations or repurchases, most remain overseas.
The Chinese government has intentionally preserved much of Yuanmingyuan in its ruined state rather than fully rebuilding it. The ruins serve as a powerful memorial to foreign invasion and are deeply tied to China’s memory of the “Century of Humiliation.” Preserving the broken structures allows visitors to confront the physical scars of history. Reconstruction is also difficult because many original buildings were wooden and completely destroyed, making accurate restoration nearly impossible. A full reconstruction would risk creating a modern replica rather than preserving authentic history.
As I concluded my walk, I found myself reflecting on this painful chapter of Chinese history. The First Opium War and Second Opium War began largely because Britain - and later France - sought to protect and expand their commercial interests in China, particularly the opium trade. Much of the opium was produced in India under the East India Company and illegally smuggled into China on a massive scale. The consequences were devastating: widespread addiction, social disruption, and severe economic harm as large quantities of silver flowed out of China.
In response, Qing official Lin Zexu launched a determined anti-opium campaign in 1839. In an effort to protect public health and uphold Chinese law, he confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium at Humen. Britain used this act as the immediate justification for military action, though the deeper motivations included trade dominance and imperial expansion.
From a modern ethical perspective, China’s actions can be viewed as a legitimate attempt to defend its sovereignty, public health, and social stability against a destructive narcotics trade. Britain and France, by contrast, used military force to compel China to accept trade on Western terms, including broader commercial privileges and continued foreign access to Chinese markets.
During the Second Opium War, Anglo-French forces looted and destroyed the Old Summer Palace, stealing countless cultural treasures, many of which remain in foreign collections today.
Under modern international legal principles, actions such as aggressive war, pillage, and the deliberate destruction of cultural heritage could potentially be regarded as serious violations of the laws of war. Although such legal frameworks did not yet exist in the 19th century, many historians view the Opium Wars as stark examples of colonial coercion and exploitation.
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